-Reasearch Paper-
by Ryan
Monday 6/06/2011
Disclaimer: I tried to avoid typos, but if you find any keep it to yourself thankyou. Still needs to be refined and fleshed out a bit more, but I thought you all can have fun with it
Intro
"Solar Energetic Particles (SEP) are high-energy particles coming from the Sun which had been first observed in the early 1940s. They consist of protons, electrons and heavy ions with energy ranging from a few tens of keV to GeV (the fastest particles can reach speed up to 80% of the speed of light). They are of particular interest and importance because they can endanger life in outer space (especially particles above 40 MeV). Solar Energetic Particles (SEPs) can originate from two processes: energetization at a solar flare site or by shock waves associated with Coronal Mass Ejection (CMEs). However, only about 1% of the CMEs produce strong SEP events."
Background
*When an ejection is pointed torwards the earth it reaches it as an ICME or interplanetary CME, the mass of solar energetic *particles arrives in the form of a shockwave causing a geomagnetic storm which may cause disruption in the magnetoshpere
*, altering it by compressing it on one side (dayside) and extending it on the other (nightside) then when the *magnetosphere reestablishes itself it releases power on the order of terawatts, directed back to the earths uppoer *atmosphere. The solar energetic particles consisting of electrons, protons and heavy ions are measured in the range of a *few tens of Kev to Gev. The fastest of these can reach speeds of close to 80% of the speed of light. particles above 40 *Mev can endanger life in outer space. They are commonly from either solar flares or CMEs. Aprox. one percent of CMEs can *produce strong SEP events.
*This region, known as the magnetosphere, causes the particles to travel around the planet rather than bombarding the *atmosphere or surface. The magnetosphere is roughly shaped like a hemisphere on the side facing the Sun, then is drawn *out in a long wake on the opposite side. The boundary of this region is called the magnetopause, and some of the particles *are able to penetrate the magnetosphere through this region by partial reconnection of the magnetic field lines
*the currently accepted belief is that the ejection starts slow in a pre-acceleration phase (a slow rising) then a perios *of rapid acceleration until a near-constant velocity is achieved, a process of kinematics.
*the CME which follows the ICME is a plamsa composed mainly of electrons and proton, but also may contain heavier elements *like *oxygen, helium,hydrogen and iron, this affects changes in the coronal magnetic field.
*"The process of gaining or losing electrons from a neutral atom or molecule is called ionization."
*CMEs can reach velocities between 20km/s to 3200km/s averaging 489km/s with an average mass of 1.6x1012kg.(as measured *from 1996-2003)
- The Earth is constantly immersed in the solar wind, a rarefied flow of hot plasma (gas of free electrons and positive *ions) emitted by the Sun in all directions, a result of the two-million-degree heat of the Sun's outermost layer, the *corona. The solar wind usually reaches Earth with a velocity around 400 km/s, density around 5 ions/cm3 and magnetic field
*intensity around 2–5 nT (nanoteslas; Earth's surface field is typically 30,000–50,000 nT). These are typical values. *During magnetic storms, in particular, flows can be several times faster; the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) may also *be much stronger.
*Solar winds help carry the energetic particles outward from the sun. The magnetosphere is full of ions trapped as
*the solar wind passes the Earth. Perturbations in the solar wind increase this flow of ions. The excess moving along field *lines and eventually accelerated toward the poles are responsible for changes in the aurora.
*energetic particles can cause strong auroras in large areas around the poles also called Northern lights (aurora borealis) in the nothern *hemisphere and southern lights (aurora australis) in the southern hemisphere.
synchrotron radiation has a spectrum with its main spike at the same fundamental frequency as the particle's orbit, and harmonics at higher integral factors. Harmonics are the result of imperfections in the actual emission environment, which also create a broadening of the spectral lines. The most obvious source of line broadening is non-uniformities in the magnetic field; as an electron passes from one area of the field to another, its emission frequency will change with the strength of the field. Other sources of broadening include collisional broadening from the electron failing to follow a perfect orbit, distortions of the emission caused by interactions with the surrounding plasma, and relativistic effects if the charged particles are sufficiently energetic. When the electrons are moving at relativistic speeds.
The recoil experienced by a particle emitting synchrotron radiation is called radiation reaction. Radiation reaction acts as a resistance to motion in a cyclotron; and the work necessary to overcome it is the main energetic cost of accelerating a particle in a cyclotron. Cyclotrons are prime examples of systems which experience radiation reaction.
electromagnetic radiation emitted by moving charged particles deflected by a magnetic field. The Lorentz force on the particles acts perpendicular to both the magnetic field lines and the particles' motion through them, creating an acceleration of charged particles that causes them to emit radiation (and to spiral around the magnetic field lines).
The power (energy per unit time) of the emission of each electron can be calculated
-dE over dt = (thomas cross section)*(magnetic field strength)squared*(velocity)squared over (speed of light) * (permeability of free space) [sorry no graphics]
In the context of magnetic fusion energy,radiation losses translate into a requirement for a minimum plasma energy density in relation to the magnetic field energy density. Atoms can be ionized by bombardment with radiation
"AHR-The radiation mainly comes from cyclotron radiation from electrons orbiting around the magnetic field lines of the Earth. The radiation has a frequency of between 50 and 500 kHz and a total power of between about 1 million and 10 million watts" I figure theres not shortage of energy there.
[http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=43018]
Auroras result from emissions of photons in the Earth's upper atmosphere, above 80 km (50 miles), from ionized nitrogen atoms regaining an electron, and oxygen and nitrogen atoms returning from an excited state to ground state. They are ionized or excited by the collision of solar wind particles being funneled down and accelerated along the Earth's magnetic field lines; excitation energy is lost by the emission of a photon of light, or by collision with another atom or molecule
The Earth's magnetic field traps these particles, many of which travel toward the poles where they are accelerated toward Earth. Collisions between these ions and atmospheric atoms and molecules cause energy releases in the form of auroras appearing in large circles around the poles. Auroras are more frequent and brighter during the intense phase of the solar cycle when coronal mass ejections increase the intensity of the solar wind. Each curtain consists of many parallel rays, each lined up with the local direction of the magnetic field lines, suggesting that auroras are shaped by Earth's magnetic field.
Indeed, satellites show electrons to be guided by magnetic field lines, spiraling around them while moving towards Earth. Although it was first mentioned by Ancient Greek explorer/geographer Pytheas, Hiorter and Celsius first described in 1741 evidence for magnetic control, namely, large magnetic fluctuations occurred whenever the aurora was observed overhead. This indicates (it was later realized) that large electric currents were associated with the aurora, flowing in the region where auroral light originated.
"September 1 1859 produced auroras so widespread and extraordinarily brilliant that they were seen and reported in published scientific measurements, ships' logs and newspapers throughout the United States, Europe, Japan and Australia. It was reported by the New York Times that in Boston on Friday 2 September 1859 the aurora was "so brilliant that at about one o'clock ordinary print could be read by the light) The aurora is thought to have been produced by one of the most intense coronal mass ejections in history, very near the maximum intensity that the Sun is thought to be capable of producing. It is also notable for the fact that it is the first time where the phenomena of auroral activity and electricity were unambiguously linked.This insight was made possible not only due to scientific magnetometer measurements of the era but also as a result of a significant portion of the 125,000 miles (201,000 km) of telegraph lines then in service being significantly disrupted for many hours throughout the storm. Some telegraph lines however seem to have been of the appropriate length and orientation to produce a sufficient geomagnetically induced current from the Electromagnetic field to allow for continued communication with the telegraph operators' power supplies switched off" -wikipedia
A collection of non-aqueous gas-like ions, or even a gas containing a proportion of charged particles, is called a plasma. >99.9% of visible matter in the Universe may be in the form of plasmas. These include our Sun and other stars, the space between planets, as well as the space in between stars. Plasmas are often called the fourth state of matter because its properties are substantially different from solids, liquids, and gases. Astrophysical plasmas predominantly contain a mixture of electrons and protons (ionized hydrogen).
Due to the instability of radical ions, polyatomic and molecular ions are usually formed by gaining or losing elemental ions such as H+, rather than gaining or losing electrons. This allows the molecule to preserve its stable electronic configuration while acquiring an electrical charge the energy required for this is known as electron binding.
*Electron binding energy, more accurately, is the energy required to release an electron from its atomic or molecular *orbital when adsorbed to a surface rather than a free atom. Binding energy values are normally reported as positive values *with units of "eV". The binding energies of 1s electrons are roughly proportional to (Z-1)² (Moseley's law).
*Highly charged particles carried by solar winds are believed to be cations (positive) having fewer electrons then protons.
while O+ moves upwards from the poles (as demonstrated by the red hue in the pretty lights), and H+ moving downward (as demonstrated by the blue hue in the pretty lights), given enough energy may create a dynamo effect*. stripping electrons from the O+ and transfering them to the X+ (presumably H, but not exclusively) moving downards depending on its electron binding energy (oribital unknown).possibly a process of adiabatic ionization, although not excluding vertical ionization given sufficeint energies, this is further understood as the electron affinity of O+ is exothermic. (i.e has lower energy)
then too is the work function for removeing an electron from a solid lying outside the fermi level to liberate it from the surface of the particular substance (metal,stone,ice?,soil,silicon,ect) overcome by energy derived by the forementioned dynamo effect. Since solids behave differently then gases or liquids, you then have to consider a work function and surface effect because the real-world solid is not infinately exteneded with electrons and ions repeatedly filling every primative cell, this means the ionization energy and the work function will vary. It can be proven that if we define work function as the minimum energy needed to remove an electron to a point immediately out of the solid, the effect of the surface charge distribution can be neglected, leaving only the surface dipole distribution. This is important becuase if the fermi energy is negative then the electrons are bound in the solid. With regards to silicon and metal, its related to the flat-band voltage and the equivalent oxcide per unit area. It gets tricky from there on, considering the makeup of any particular molecule or atom, different formulae are required. This makes it a daunting task to measure the work function or ionization energy of any given area of soil, even just a few grams. the hard part is the threshhold where gas meets solid. This is where Greens function may help. Green's functions is used to solve inhomogeneous differential equations, to which they are loosely related. (Specifically, only two-point 'Green's functions' are Green's functions in the mathematical sense; the linear operator that they invert is the part of the Hamiltonian operator that is quadratic in the fields.)
Regardless, the fact remains that sufficent material could exist in any area of soil to meet the requirements, although in some cases a canceling effect may occur. It would not overcome the whole, becuase gases permeate the soil and so lend thier effect to the whole as well. i.e on a small scale the effect is constantly fluctuating, on the whole the effect may be consistant. Thus the larger the area affected, the more likely a stable state is achieved. Generally non-metals have more positive electron affinity then metals with the exception of perhaps mercury.
The mechanical transport process would be Ohm's law which states that at least for sufficiently small applied voltages, the current I is linearly proportional to the applied voltage V.
As the applied voltage increases we expect to see deviations from linear behaviour. The coefficient of proportionality is the electrical conductivity which is the reciprocal of the electrical resistance. But as each electron exchange is more a reaction of the previous exchange, relatively little additional energy should be needed to keep the process going.
Conclusion:
So then the polar field lines are verticle, but the charged particles travel in a decending spriral perpendicular to the field lines, while emmiting photons (radiation ionizes more atoms) AND generating energy (as in a dynamo cause a charge crossing a field at the perpendicular generates energy), and like an upside vandegraff generator ions begin collecting not on top, but at the bottom as the plates are the collectors, the ions build up [picture an inverted vandegraff-dynamo-ion drain]. Now you need ALOT of ions, but recall there are multiple sources, the initial ICBE, the CBE that follows,radiation both from the CBE,ICBE and the charged particles emmiting radiation and the constant solar winds whose ions are trapped by the magnetosphere, the first and second are the primers and the ions trapped in the magnetosphere will be drawn down by the circulation of O+ and H+, constantly depositing the ions in the plate. As the ions spread throughout to there theorectical maximum you may have several charged plates as simply ions theres not much force, but like gravity if theres alot of it, the accumulated force of hundreds of thousands of square feet of area where two plates touch…begin to relieve the friction on any two plates, and its friction thats keeping them from quakeing.
DATA:
[Normally] a smaller number of particles from the solar wind manage to travel [the field], as though on an electromagnetic energy transmission line
"A Brief Introduction to Geomagnetism",http://geomag.cr.usgs.gov/intro.php
Data from THEMIS show that the magnetic field, which interacts with the solar wind, is reduced when the magnetic orientation is aligned between Sun and Earth
Often "Tears Out A Wall" In Earth's Solar Storm Shield
[http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2003/29dec_magneticfield/]
The strength of the flux density at the Earth's surface ranges from less than 30 microteslas (0.3 gauss) in an area including most of South America and South Africa to over 60 microteslas (0.6 gauss) around the magnetic poles in northern Canada and south of Australia, and in part of Siberia.
The average flux density in the Earth's outer core was calculated to be 25 Gauss, 50 times stronger than the magnetic field at the surface.
http://www.science20.com/news_articles/first_measurement_magnetic_field_inside_earths_core
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v468/n7326/full/nature09643.html
the Lorentz force is the force on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields
F=q[E+(v x B)]
F is the force (in newtons)
E is the electric field (in volts per metre)
B is the magnetic field (in teslas)
q is the electric charge of the particle (in coulombs)
v is the instantaneous velocity of the particle (in metres per second)
× is the vector cross product
All the quantities (in particular, F, E, v, B) are vectors
A positively charged particle will be accelerated in the same linear orientation as the E field, but will curve perpendicularly to both the instantaneous velocity vector v and the B field according to the right-hand rule (in detail, if the thumb of the right hand points along v and the index finger along B, then the middle finger points along F).
The magnetic force component of the Lorentz force manifests itself as the force that acts on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field. In that context, it is also called the Laplace force.
In many cases of practical interest, the motion in a magnetic field of an electrically charged particle (such as an electron or ion in a plasma) can be treated as the superposition of a relatively fast circular motion around a point called the guiding center and a relatively slow drift of this point. The drift speeds may differ for various species depending on their charge states, masses, or temperatures, possibly resulting in electric currents or chemical separation.
Note also that as a definition of E and B, the Lorentz force is only a definition in principle because a real particle (as opposed to the hypothetical "test charge" of infinitesimally-small mass and charge) would generate its own finite E and B fields, which would alter the electromagnetic force that it experiences. In addition, if the charge experiences acceleration, for example, if forced into a curved trajectory by some external agency, it emits radiation that causes braking of its motion. See, for example, Bremsstrahlung and synchrotron light. These effects occur through both a direct effect (called the radiation reaction force) and indirectly (by affecting the motion of nearby charges and currents).
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Faraday's law of induction holds whether the loop of wire is rigid and stationary, or in motion or in process of deformation, and it holds whether the magnetic field is constant in time or changing. However, there are cases where Faraday's law is either inadequate or difficult to use, and application of the underlying Lorentz force law is necessary.
If the magnetic field is fixed in time and the conducting loop moves through the field, the flux magnetic flux ΦB linking the loop can change in several ways. For example, if the B-field varies with position, and the loop moves to a location with different B-field, ΦB will change. Alternatively, if the loop changes orientation with respect to the B-field, the B•dA differential element will change because of the different angle between B and dA, also changing ΦB. As a third example, if a portion of the circuit is swept through a uniform, time-independent B-field, and another portion of the circuit is held stationary, the flux linking the entire closed circuit can change due to the shift in relative position of the circuit's component parts with time
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(This is the net force. In addition, there will usually be torque, plus other effects if the wire is not perfectly rigid.)
One application of this is Ampère's force law, which describes how two current-carrying wires can attract or repel each other, since each experiences a Lorentz force from the other's magnetic field. For more information, see the article: Ampère's force law.
EMF
The magnetic force (q v × B) component of the Lorentz force is responsible for motional electromotive force (or motional EMF), the phenomenon underlying many electrical generators. When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, the magnetic force tries to push electrons through the wire, and this creates the EMF. The term "motional EMF" is applied to this phenomenon, since the EMF is due to the motion of the wire.
The IMF originates on the Sun, related to the field of sunspots, and its field lines (lines of force) are dragged out by the solar wind. That alone would tend to line them up in the Sun-Earth direction, but the rotation of the Sun skews them (at Earth) by about 45 degrees, so that field lines passing Earth may actually start near the western edge ("limb") of the visible Sun.
-greens function
.. many-body theory, the term Green's function (or Green function) is sometimes used interchangeably with correlation function, but refers specifically to correlators of field operators or creation and annihilation operators.
n physics, in the area of electrodynamics, the Larmor formula (not to be confused with the Larmor precession from classical NMR) is used to calculate the total power radiated by a nonrelativistic point charge as it accelerates. It was first derived by J. J. Larmor in 1897, in the context of the wave theory of light.
When accelerating or decelerating, any charged particle (such as an electron) radiates away energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. For velocities that are small relative to the speed of light, the total power radiated is given by the Larmor formula:
This approach is based on the finite speed of light. A charge moving with constant velocity has a radial electric field Er (at distance R from the charge), always emerging from the future position of the charge, and there is no tangential component of the electric field (Et = 0). This future position is completely deterministic as long as the velocity is constant. When the velocity of the charge changes, (say it bounces back during a short time) the future position "jumps", so from this moment and on, the radial electric field Er emerges from a new position. Given the fact that the electric field must be continuous, a non-zero tangential component of the electric field Et appears, which decreases like 1 / R (unlike the radial component which decreases like 1 / R2).
Hence, at large distances from the charge, the radial component is negligible relative to the tangential component, and in addition to that, fields which behave like 1 / R2 cannot radiate, because the Poynting vector associated with them will behave like 1 / R4.
It says that the power radiated by the particle into space depends upon its rate of change of momentum with respect to its time. It also says that the power radiated is proportional to the charge squared and inversely proportional to the mass squared. Thus for a highly charged, extremely small particle the radiation will be much greater than that for a large particle with a small charge.
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Bremsstrahlung (German pronunciation: [ˈbʁɛmsˌʃtʁaːlʊŋ] ( listen), from bremsen "to brake" and Strahlung "radiation", i.e. "braking radiation" or "deceleration radiation") is electromagnetic radiation produced by the deceleration of a charged particle when deflected by another charged particle, typically an electron by an atomic nucleus. The moving particle loses kinetic energy, which is converted into a photon because energy is conserved. The term is also used to refer to the process of producing the radiation. Bremsstrahlung has a continuous spectrum, which becomes more intense and shifts toward higher frequencies when the energy of the accelerated particles is increased.
Strictly speaking, bremsstrahlung refers to any radiation due to the acceleration of a charged particle, which includes synchrotron radiation; however, it is frequently used in the more narrow sense of radiation from electrons stopping in matter.
Bremsstrahlung emitted from plasma is sometimes referred to as free-free radiation. This refers to the fact that the radiation in this case is created by charged particles that are free both before and after the deflection (acceleration) that causes the emission.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremsstrahlung]
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voltage?
Green–Kubo relations
Thermodynamic systems may be prevented from relaxing to equilibrium because of the application of a mechanical field (e.g. electric or magnetic field), or because the boundaries of the system are in relative motion (shear) or maintained at different temperatures, etc. This generates two classes of nonequilibrium system: mechanical nonequilibrium systems and thermal nonequilibrium systems.
The standard example of a thermal transport process would be Newton's Law of viscosity which states that the shear stress Sxy is linearly proportional to the strain rate. The strain rate γ is the rate of change streaming velocity in the x-direction, with respect to the y-coordinate, $\gamma \ \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}\ \partial u_x /\partial y$ . Newton's Law of viscosity states $S_{xy} = \eta \gamma.\,$
As the strain rate increases we expect to see deviations from linear behaviour
$S_{xy} = \eta (\gamma )\gamma.\,$
Another well known thermal transport process is Fourier's Law of Heat conduction which states that the heat flux between two bodies maintained at different temperatures is proportional to the temperature gradient (the temperature difference divided by the spatial separation).
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In the 1950s Green and Kubo proved an exact expression for linear transport coefficients which is valid for systems of arbitrary temperature, T, and density. They proved that linear transport coefficients are exactly related to the time dependence of equilibrium fluctuations in the conjugate flux,
$L(F_e = 0) = \beta V\;\int_0^\infty {ds} \left\langle {J(0)J(s)} \right\rangle _{F_e = 0},$ ,
where $\beta = \frac{1}{kT}$ (with k the Boltzmann constant), and V is the system volume. The integral is over the equilibrium flux autocovariance function. At zero time the autocovariance is positive since it is the mean square value of the flux at equilibrium. Note that at equilibrium the mean value of the flux is zero by definition. At long times the flux at time t, J(t), is uncorrelated with its value a long time earlier J(0) and the autocorrelation function decays to zero. This remarkable relation is frequently used in molecular dynamics computer simulation to compute linear transport coefficients.
This shows the fundamental importance of the fluctuation theorem in nonequilibrium statistical mechanics. The FT (together with the Axiom of Causality) gives a generalisation of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. It is then easy to prove the second law inequality and the Kawasaki identity. When combined with the central limit theorem, the FT also implies the famous Green–Kubo relations for linear transport coefficients, close to equilibrium. The FT is however, more general than the Green–Kubo Relations because unlike them, the FT applies to fluctuations far from equilibrium. In spite of this fact, we have not yet been able to derive the equations for nonlinear response theory from the FT.
The FT does not imply or require that the distribution of time-averaged dissipation is Gaussian. There are many examples known when the distribution is non-Gaussian and yet the FT (of course) still correctly describes the probability ratios.
Most of the the books are available at google books, got kindle?
1[Physics for scientists and engineers, with modern physics.ISBN 0-534-40846-X]
2[Introduction to electrodynamics (3rd ed.)ISBN 0-13-805326-X]
3[http://ilorentz.org/history/lorentz/lorentz.html]
4[Aurora: The Mysterious Northern Lights ISBN 0-87156-419-X. ]
5[Handbook of the Solar-Terrestrial Environment. ISBN 978-3-540-46314-6.]
6[The Solar System. Springer. ISBN 3540002413.]
7[Introduction to Modern Astrophysics (revised 2nd ed.). Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0201547309]
8[The Green Function Method in Statistical Mechanics. North Holland Publishing Co.]
9[Statistical Mechanics of Nonequilibrium Processes: Basic Concepts, Kinetic Theory (Vol. 1).ISBN 3-05-501708-0.]
10[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection]
Ryan (guest) 04 Jun 2011 08:45
